Definition

Non-transfusion-dependent thalassaemia (NTDT) describes patients who have an inherited genetic defect or combination of defects that affect Hb chain synthesis and, consequently, the oxygen-carrying capacity of red blood cells [1]-[4]. NTDT is a broad term that covers several thalassaemia disorders, including HbH disease (ORPHA93616), β-thalassaemia intermedia (ORPHA231222), and HbE/β-thalassaemia (ORPHA231249). Even though NTDT patients are often anaemic, they do not rely on blood transfusions for daily function and survival, which differentiates them from patients with thalassaemia major (TM) or transfusion-dependent thalassaemia (TDT). However, abnormal RBC synthesis can cause debilitating clinical symptoms that impact morbidity, quality of life and mortality [4]-[8]. The transfusion requirements of a NTDT patient can change over time and there is also considerable variability between the transfusion needs of different individuals [7]. The patient described in the case study fits the definition of NTDT, because she is not reliant on blood transfusions for daily function and survival. Nevertheless, the symptoms of growth retardation indicate a need for treatment.

Genetics and epidemiology of NTDT

Genetic defects that affect the synthesis of globin chains can be divided into two broad groups: 1) a defect(s) in one or more of the genes that code for β-globin chain, 2) a defect(s) in one or more of the genes that code for β-globin chain [5]-[7]. To date, more than 300 different thalassaemia defects of the globin chains have been discovered and these can be further classified according to their type, i.e., insertion, deletion or base substitution [5]-[7],[9].

β-thalassaemia, which results from one or more defects in the genes that code for the β-globin chain, or β-globin gene rearrangements causing duplication, has 80 to 90 million carriers worldwide (1.5% of the global population) [5]. The highest prevalence is found in India, Bangladesh and South East Asia (where the carrier frequency is approximately 1-5%) [8],[10],[11]. One β-globin gene defect that is highly prevalent in this population is a single-point mutation (HBB:c.79G > A) causing Haemoglobin E (HbE) [5].

An estimated 300,000 children are born each year with a genetic defect of one or more genes that code for α/β-globin chains [4]. If the defect(s) affect(s) the expression of two corresponding α- or β-globin genes, then phenotypic thalassaemia develops [4].

The clinical course of thalassaemia varies greatly and depends on the combination of genetic anomalies in a patient [14],[15]. People with deleterious genetic defects on both alleles coding for β-globins develop the most severe form of β-thalassaemia, namely β-thalassaemia major. The most severe form of β-thalassaemia is hydrops foetalis with Hb Barts, a fatal disorder that results from genetic deletions that abolish the expression of all α genes. Genetic defects other than those resulting in β-thalassaemia major and hydrops foetalis encompass a wide spectrum of severity, from asymptomatic to mild and from moderately severe to severe. The severity of a thalassaemic disorder is associated with the extent of anaemia and consequently the need for therapeutic strategies to overcome anaemia. So, patients with a severe thalassaemia, such as β-thalassaemia major, develop debilitating anaemia and are transfusion dependent. Patients with milder forms of thalassaemia, such as β-thalassaemia intermedia, HbE, and HbH disease develop anaemia, but it is not so severe that they are dependent on RBC transfusions for survival. This group of patients is therefore considered to have NTDT [1]-[7].

Pathophysiology of NTDT

The main drivers underlying the pathophysiology of NTDT are chronic anaemia; ineffective erythropoiesis and chronic haemolysis from peripheral destruction of RBCs; and compensatory physiological mechanisms that attempt to rectify a state of anaemia, including marrow expansion, extramedullary haematopoiesis and increased absorption of gastrointestinal iron. Because these mechanisms cannot overcome the genetic defect in synthesizing fully functional RBCs, they are constantly activated, leading to the development of diverse clinical complications (see Figure 1) [5]-[7],[16]-[20]. The ways in which the main pathophysiological drivers of NTDT mediate clinical complications are explained below.

Chronic anaemia

NTDT patients have underlying anaemia with Hb levels varying between 7-11 μg/dL [18],[20],[21]. Due to imbalances in α- and β-globin chains, globin tetramers are unstable resulting in precipitation and degradation. This process releases free iron and leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species, causing membrane damage and ultimately premature cell death in bone marrow (ineffective erythropoiesis) or peripheral circulation (haemolysis) [22],[23]. The severity of anaemia is determined by both the extent of ineffective erythropoiesis and the extent of haemolysis [24]. Haemolysis is associated with progressive splenomegaly and can also contribute to a hypercoagulable state, which many NTDT patients experience. Anaemia can be severe and life-threatening in NTDT patients who experience a physiological challenge, such as illness, trauma or pregnancy; and can also cause growth failure and delayed development [25],[26]. The patient described in our case study clearly had growth failure; this is most likely to be a result of chronic anaemia. Her Hb level at the time of presentation was 8.1 μg/dL (reference range: 11-16 μg/dL).

Ineffective erythropoiesis

Normal physiological compensation for anaemia is an increase in erythropoietin (EPO) from renal interstitial fibroblasts and hepatic perisinusoidal cells. In thalassaemia, the desired outcome of an increase in functional circulating RBCs is unattainable and EPO stimulation is therefore constantly upregulated [24]. Constant elevation of EPO levels drives erythroid marrow expansion and the development of extramedullary erythroid tissue in the chest, abdomen and pelvis, causing skeletal deformities and osteopenia [27]-[29]. The inherently defective erythropoiesis in thalassaemia inhibits the differentiation of early erythroid progenitors, resulting in large numbers of these progenitor cells in the liver and spleen. This, together with the excessive amounts of damaged RBCs that are filtered by the spleen, leads to hepatosplenomegaly [24].

Iron overload

In NTDT, iron uptake from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is considerably higher than normal because the upregulated rate of erythropoiesis sequesters large amounts of physiological iron [30]. However, as the sequestered iron is not incorporated into fully functional RBCs, transferrin levels become saturated and unbound physiological iron is deposited in organs, especially the liver. The serum ferritin levels in our case study patient were considerably higher than normal (321 ng/mL compared with the reference range of 30-150 ng/mL), despite her having no history of RBC transfusion. In addition, iron absorption through the gut can be increased due to reduction of hepcidin production in NTDT patients. Hepcidin negatively regulates both duodenal iron absorption and macrophage iron release. Hepcidin binds ferroportin on cells of the intestinal duodenum, macrophages, and cells of the placenta, inducing internalization and degradation. In thalassaemia, overexpression of the erythropoietic factor, growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) contributes to iron overload by inhibiting hepcidin expression, and thereby increasing iron absorption through the gut [31],[32]. The serum ferritin levels in our case study patient illustrates how extensive iron uptake from the GIT can be in patients with HbE/β-thalassaemia [31],[32].

Other complicating factors

In addition to anaemia, ineffective erythropoiesis and iron overload, several molecular and cellular mechanisms that play a part in the regulation of blood coagulability are dysregulated in NTDT. In these patients, chronic platelet activation, dysregulation of adhesion molecules on vascular endothelial cells and abnormal RBC membranes contribute to a state of hypercoagulability, which increases the risk of thromboembolic complications [33],[34].

β-thalassaemia intermedia

Patients with β-thalassaemia intermedia usually present when they are ≥2 years of age and their Hb level normally lies between 7-10 μg/dL [20]. They are generally considered non-transfusion dependent, but at the more severe end of the spectrum, this may not be the case. Children with Hb levels in the range of 5-6 μg/dL often develop skeletal deformities. Patients with Hb levels in the range of 6-9 μg/dL develop normally, but they are prone to progressive splenomegaly and declining Hb levels later in life, or when physiological stressors such as infection or pregnancy complicate their condition. β-thalassaemia intermedia patients have an increased susceptibility to infections and skeletal changes and they require individualized treatment strategies because their clinical severity lies between β-thalassaemia major and minor [20]. Management of these patients is particularly challenging for clinicians because they can present with a wide variety of complications which can vary in severity. In addition, until recently there were few clear guidelines on treating the underlying disease (the Thalassaemia International Federation guidelines for the management of NTDT were released recently) [42].

HbE/β-thalassaemia

This disease can be classified into three categories on the basis of clinical severity: mild (observed in 15% of patients with this disease in South East Asia); moderately severe (represents the majority of HbE/β-thalassaemia cases); and severe. It is estimated that up to half of all patients with HbE/β-thalassaemia exhibit clinical symptoms resembling those of β-thalassaemia major, while the remainder bear a clinical resemblance to the phenotype of β-thalassaemia intermedia or NTDT [35].

HbH disease

Patients with HbH disease can be classified as having either a non-deletional or a deletional defect of the α-globin genes. Patients with a non-deletional defect generally have lower levels of Hb and higher levels of HbH and inclusion bodies than those who have a deletional defect [36]. Non-deletional HbH is therefore considered a more severe form of the disease than deletional HbH. In addition, patients with non-deletional HbH disease were found to have more symptoms at a younger age, more severe haemolytic anaemia, more growth retardation, more dysmorphic facial features, larger spleens, larger livers, and higher serum ferritin levels [18],[36]. These patients required more transfusions than patients with deletional HbH disease [18]. All patients with HbH disease are prone to infections, leg ulcers and gallstones; and those older than 45 years of age are susceptible to iron overload even if they do not receive regular blood transfusions [6],[18],[36],[43]. HbH and β-thalassaemia syndrome has been recently reviewed and hence we will not discuss in detail here [44].

Identifying NTDT patients

Many of the clinical complications common in NTDT can be prevented by early intervention strategies. A diagnosis of NTDT before the onset of clinical complications is therefore a valuable investment in the future health of patients. In addition, screening families in high frequency areas may well offer clinical value and will allow for prenatal counselling.

Children with NTDT commonly present with symptoms of anaemia, such as pallor, fatigue, dizziness or vertigo, tachycardia and dyspnoea [36]. Children are usually older than two years of age at the time of presentation and those with mild anaemia can present much later [20]. Our case study patient presented with several symptoms of anaemia. Her parents described her as being lethargic, which is a sign of fatigue, and clinical examination revealed pallor (mild scleral icterus) and tachycardia. In addition, this child was nine years of age at the time of presentation, suggesting NTDT rather than β-thalassaemia major.

NTDT patients with moderately severe phenotype can develop a haemolytic crisis during an acute pathogenic infection or high fever. In a relatively small percentage of these patients, this event triggers investigation into the presence of an underlying haemoglobinopathy. The Hb levels of NTDT patients experiencing a haemolytic crisis rapidly decline and as a result they can be mistaken for having TDT and erroneously entered into a management programme of lifelong, regular transfusions. It is therefore advised that once children recover from the underlying factor that initiated a haemolytic crisis, transfusion therapy be interrupted so that appropriate baseline Hb levels can be determined [45]. In our practices, we will follow such cases with monthly complete blood count (CBC) monitoring for at least 6 months to determine their baseline Hb and associated clinical symptoms such as clinical anaemia, fatigue, lethargy, poor feeding, poor weight gain, intercurrent infection, liver and spleen size and development of bone deformities. These parameters will be carefully considered to categorize patients into either TDT or NTDT phenotypes.

The diagnostic work-up

The diagnostic protocol for NTDT uses complete blood cell counts with erythrocyte indices as measured by an automated blood cell counter. Typically, blood analyses of almost all thalassaemias show a reduction in the size and Hb content of mature RBCs, which is evident in a reduced MCV and mean cell MCH [46]. Low MCV (<80 fl) and/or MCH (<27 pg) require further investigation by means of electrophoresis, high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and DNA analysis to identify the thalassaemia type and the genetic defects as shown in Figure 2[46]-[48]. If NTDT is suspected, family studies are an important aspect of diagnosis.

Blood transfusion therapy

The initiation of transfusion in NTDT patients can have clinical as well as prophylactic benefits. The OPTIMAL CARE study showed that patients given intermittent or regular transfusions developed fewer clinical complications that are usually linked to chronic anaemia, but they were more prone to develop iron overload-related endocrinopathy [21]. Several observational studies have reported fewer thromboembolic events, PHT and silent brain infarcts in NTDT patients who receive intermittent transfusions versus those who are never transfused [50]. There is also evidence to suggest that the health-related quality of life of NTDT patients is worse than regularly transfused patients [51]. Taher et al. have suggested raising baseline Hb for NTDT patients to over 9 μg/dL in order to prevent future complications as a prophylactic measure [52]. Nevertheless, it remains important for practicing physicians to communicate and discuss with their NTDT patients in order to tailor their transfusion care to suit the patient's level of compliance and the resource available in their own healthcare service.

Hydroxyurea

HU, as an inducer of HbF, has been tested in patients with β-thalassaemia major, β-thalassaemia intermedia and HbE/β-thalassaemia. This compound affects stem cell differentiation in the bone marrow and promotes selective advantages of F-cells and stimulates post-natal expression of α-globin genes in order to up-regulate HbF production. This results in less globin imbalance and reduced ineffective erythropoiesis. However, increases in Hb after initiation of HU have been shown to vary between 0.6- 2.5 μg/dL and several NTDT patients did not respond at all to HU [53]-[55]. Evidence suggests that the response to HU treatment is likely to be dependent on several clinical and genetic factors including Xmn I polymorphism [56],[57]. The OPTIMAL CARE study showed that in patients with β-thalassaemia intermedia, HU has clinical benefit, especially when combined with transfusion and iron chelation therapy [21]. Short- and medium-term administration of HU was also well tolerated by α-TI patients, but the effectiveness seems to decline with long-term use [54].

Iron chelation therapy

It is essential to monitor physiological iron loads in NTDT because of the abnormally high uptake of iron from the GIT in these patients [30],[31]. RBC transfusions, given intermittently or on a fairly regular basis, also contribute to systemic iron accumulation.

It is known that NTDT patients develop extensive liver iron loading although their serum ferritin levels are relatively low compared with the serum ferritin levels indicative of liver iron loading in transfusion-dependent patients [58],[59]. This complicates the monitoring of physiological iron loads in NTDT, because the current thresholds for serum ferritin used to guide chelation therapy in transfusion-dependent patients cannot be extrapolated to NTDT patients. Taher and Viprakasit et al. recently developed a treatment algorithm based on the specific relationship that exists between serum ferritin levels and liver iron concentration in NTDT to guide a decision on chelation initiation in these patients [60]. In NTDT, direct assessment of liver iron concentration, by means of biopsy or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis every 1-2 years is recommended. MRI analysis has become the mainstay of treatment, as it very accurate and less invasive. In areas where MRI analysis is not readily available, an algorithm that relates serum ferritin to liver iron concentration has been proposed. A decision to initiate chelation therapy should be based on the extent of iron overload and the rate of iron accumulation.

The OPTIMAL CARE study showed that, in NTDT, effective iron chelation can keep serum ferritin levels relatively low, thereby preventing the development of clinical complications due to iron overload [21],[61]-[63]. In addition, NTDT (β-thalassaemia intermedia) patients who received transfusion as well as chelation therapy were shown to have a lower incidence of complications compared with patients who received no treatment or either therapy alone [21]. It is therefore evident that, in many NTDT patients, RBC transfusion given in combination with chelation therapy can have considerable short- and long-term benefits. As chelation therapy can counter organ iron loading, which is an important disadvantage of RBC transfusion, NTDT patients can derive more benefits from transfusion-induced improvement of Hb levels.

Splenectomy

All NTDT patients, regardless of transfusion pattern, experience an increase in spleen volume over time [16]. This, in turn, causes a worsening of anaemia and consequently, an increased demand for RBC transfusion [1],[2],[16]. Patients with hypersplenism may also experience leucopoenia and thrombocytopenia, which can lead to recurrent bacterial infection or bleeding. In severe cases, patients develop splenomegaly, which is accompanied by symptoms such as left upper quadrant pain and early satiety. These patients are at risk of developing splenic rupture.

A decision to splenectomize an NTDT patient is complex as there is evidence that in these patients, splenectomy can increase the risk of complications such as thromboembolic events and infection [64]. Results from the OPTIMAL CARE study showed that in patients with NTDT, there is an independent association between splenectomy and an increase in the occurrence of thromboembolism, PHT, heart failure, iron-related endocrinopathy and leg ulcers [21]. Splenectomy is also known to increase the risk of infection, which, in turn, has a high risk for mortality, especially in young patients [65],[66]. However, splenectomy with appropriate preventive measures including vaccination and antibiotic prophylaxis is still recommended for patients with HbH disease who almost always respond to this treatment modality and rarely require further blood transfusions [44].